Cell biology Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Cell biology - Research Paper Example The study of cells using microscopes can either be through transmission electron microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, confocal microscopy and optical microscopy (Lodish, 411). There are a number of techniques that are commonly used in cell biology. Immunohistochemisty/ immunostaining is a useful histological technique that locates (tags) proteins in tissues and cells through fluorescence microscopy (towards various desired goals). Another common technique, cell culture, is used to grow cells under special conditions in the lab, outside a living organism while gene knock down is a method used to elicit mutation in a selected gene. Computational genomics identifies certain patterns in genomic data as DNA microarrays are essential in noting variations in transcript levels of various experimental circumstances. The method of PCR indicates the number of gene copies found in the cell and the process of transfection introduces into a cell an entirely new gene. To discover which cells are expressing a certain transcript of RNA, cell biologists use in situ hybridization. During cell biology, purification of cells can be accomplished using techniques such as flow c ytometry, cell fractionation, immunoprecipitation, and so on (Pollard and William, 418). Some of the processes of the cell commonly studied by cell biologists include active and passive transport, adhesion, cell movement, DNA repair (cell death and senescence), gene expression, metabolism, cell signaling, division and autophagy. Knowledge of cell biology is useful in fields such as cancer research and other disciplines like genetics, microbiology, immunology, molecular biology, developmental biology, biochemistry, anatomy, biostatistics, ecology, epidemiology, histology, mycology, reproductive biology, toxicology, virology, bacteriology, and so on (Pollard and William,

Statapult (catapult) strike experiment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Statapult (catapult) strike experiment - Essay Example Afterwards, 6 trials of that best possible angle are done and checking done to see whether we are getting similar distances as those we obtained theoretically. The results gotten indicate nearly similar distances as those obtained from equation which is 160cm.Furthermore,we have to determine the 95 percent CI from Minitab which is (151.99,168.01)cm ,whereas the anticipated confidence level is in the range of 95 percent CI. Introduction This experiment assists in coming up with a prediction equation for the statapult to strike a specific target. Multiple projectiles will be fired at differing angles, arm and peg settings. Through doing this; adequate data can be collected so as to establish the equation that controls the distance of the projectile. By utilizing this equation the maximum as well as the minimum distances that the projectile can travel can be figured out. A target distance that we can hit is then provided. By use of the Minitab software, the optimal settings will be computed and so as to establish the needed target distance and then 6 trials of the distance we get from the optimum settings are done. After trials are done, the uncoded angle (1500) is then converted to coded angle (-0.5) so as to determine the theoretical target distance of Y (-0.5, 1, 1) = 164.05 cm which is almost near the specified targeted value; 160 cm. Finally we have to determine the confidence interval from those 6 trials data wh ich is (154.76, 165.90) and it lies well within the confidence for interval for the mean, (151.99, 168.01), found out in the Minitab.

Teamwork wins Championship Essay Example for Free

Teamwork wins Championship Essay Team work wins Championship! Talent wins games, but teamwork and intelligence wins championship. l I must say what an awesome saying by Michael Jordan! He beautifully portrays the success of teamwork. As nowadays, the challenge for companies is to deliver quickly and flexibly new quality products and services in order to respond to greater and changing demands from clients. Standardization and specialization characterize traditional work organization; the work is divided into different segments, and workers perform their tasks individually, specializing in their field. However, specialization, control and outine are suitable when a constant demand for standardized products applies. However, for a fast changing demand, this method does not seem to work as well, and may lead to coordination problems and rigidities. Therefore, to fulfill the fast changing demand, the companies started to look for new forms of organization of which teamwork is quite successful one. 2 Teamwork is considered to be one of the core elements of the new work organization and it involves working cooperatively and making use of individual strengths within a group to achieve a common goal. Teams are more flexible and responsive to changing events. This is because there is no one leader clearly in charge in fact the leadership role is shared and work is done collectively. This creates an environment that facilitates knowledge and information exchange. As team working makes fuller use of all the talents of the workforce. Better solutions to problems are found as those most closely connected with the work participate in suggesting answers Thus, this highly motivates staff resulting in reduce labour turnover and high labour productivity. Labour productivity is the output per worker in a given time period. When companies such as W. L. Gore, Volvo and Kraft Foods introduced teams into their production process, they made news because no one else was doing it. But today, its Just the opposite an organization that doesnt use teams would be newsworthy. Its estimated that over 70 percent of U. S. manufacturers use work teams. 3 Hence, team working is better for productivity than individual working. Management theory suggests that compared to an individual, a diverse group of people will be more creative because team members will bring a variety of ideas, perspectives and approaches to the group. Even at Google teams are a way of life. As the company web sites states, Googlers thrive in small, focused teams and high-energy environments. 4 Actually teamwork is different from the Taylorist work organization. F. W. Taylor was the person who made first serious attempt to analyze worker motivation in order to advise management on the best ways to increase worker performance or productivity. His scientific management theory is characterized by task specialization, a pyramid hierarchical structure and a centralization of responsibilities. Under the Taylorist model the work was divided into narrow functions with short, repetitive work cycles and the work method is rescribed in detail. However, this system does not offer sufficient scope for a process of upgrading and innovation, which is essential for quick change and adaptation. The slowness and relative rigidity of the traditional organizational scheme otten earns i t the name dinosaur syndrome. 5 Furthermore the repetitive tasks cause boredom amongst workers. Hence, employees lose interest in their work which ultimately leads to poor response rate and high labour turnover effecting productivity. Hence, Taylor approach of management, giving instructions to workers with no discussion or feedback is considered to be undesirable. Worker participation in devising best work practices is now encouraged. As Mayo Human Relations theory also suggest that working conditions and financial rewards have little or no effect on productivity. In fact when management consults with workers work in teams and develops a team spirit then productivity is improved. As team working makes fuller use of all the talents of the workforce. Thus, better solutions to problems are found as those most closely connected with the work participate in suggesting answers. 6 Case study of Starbucks Corporation will further help to illustrate the concept. Starbucks Corporation is the most famous chain of retail coffee shops in the world. In 1971 it started with three owners and in 1982 a sales representative, Howard Schultz, of the house ware business in New York Joined them. When he had a vocation to Italy, he experienced an entirely different coffee culture. He wanted to adopt that in Starbucks but the initial owners rejected the idea. Therefore, he chose to establish a new coffee shop, named II Gironale. In two years his business was so successful that the three owners of Starbucks decided to sell their business to Schultz. His work strategy worked so well that in 2007 he was ranked as the 16th best company. Schultz was so successful due to his business culture, beliefs and attitudes. He believed that the tip of success is not coffee but employees. Hence, motivation is the vital factor for business in the process of making their production. As labours are not working machines, so they can not always do the same affairs with equal passion. Accordingly the efficient method to make staffs keen on their Jobs should be to motivate them. As Nicholson (1998) also reported that workers had strong social eeds which they tried to satisfy through membership of informal social groups at workplace. 7 Therefore, Schultz adopted teamwork which did not only construct a small social structure in organization for employees to soci alize, but also composite of various kind of members who equip with different background of skill and knowledge on account of the mission. However, if business were rather bureaucratic in their approach with an inflexible approach to staff issues. Focused on individual working rather than teamwork then according to Mc Gregor theory Y, workers will be ighly de-motivated. As Mc Gregor theory Y managers believed that workers are creative, willing to accept responsibility and can derive as much enjoyment from work as from rest and play. Hence, in todays world where there is so much awareness among workers so if they are not given any right in decision making then this could de-motivate them and affect productivity. Thus, teamwork is the solution which gives workers not only the chance to participate in suggesting ideas in fact through increased communication they are able to complete large projects in lesser time. As many business projects require numerous tasks and exhibit a complexity level that would be almost impossible for a single employee to complete on his own. 8 Therefore pulling individuals from a variety of departments and positions allows a company to complete projects and work assignments more efficiently. Adding up to it, team working can reduce management cost as it is often associated with de-layering ot the organization. De-layering is the removal ot one or more ot the levels ot hierarchy from an organization structure. Furthermore, there is a positive correlation between teamwork and employee training. This is because when workers work in teams they are able to learn from others. As some team members might be from the upper level of the management and have much more experience than others members. Thus by developing social contacts and even by observing them, members who are less experienced can learn. The Finnish Quality of Work Life Survey reports, Employees who do teamwork have generally better possibilities of receiving training and for developing their skills than people who do not work in teams. 9 Abraham Maslow also suggested the theory of the hierarchy of human needs. His findings were not only based on the work environment in fact he considered psychological and sociological factors as well. He believed that human needs starts from the level of physical needs which include food, shelter, water and rest. Then it moves to safety needs which means protection from threats, Job security, health and safety at work. Further the hierarchy of needs move to social needs which refer to feeling of belonging to a group, trust and acceptance. And then comes the esteem needs and self actualization. Esteem needs mean status and recognition of achievement. Therefore, by developing teams MasloWs social and esteem needs and likely to be fulfilled. Hence, workers are expected to be better motivated. It would stimulate people to take action to improve productivity. 10 Hence, it can be safely concluded that teamwork can contribute to a better quality of working life for employees leading to improved productivity. Working in teams allows employees to give their ideas and work collectively which result in completing large projects in lesser time and hence increase efficiency of employees. Efficiency means producing output at the highest ratio of output to input. Therefore, the organization is benefited from the speed of employees as teamwork motivates workers and they do their work with more interest. Furthermore, the degree of acceptance is high of the decisions made by teams as they are usually perceived as more legitimate than decisions made by one person. This is because team members are reluctant to fght or undermine a decision that they helped develop. 11 Henry Ford also said, Coming together is the beginning. Keeping together is the progress. Working together is the success. 12 Therefore, adopting team work at work place usually leads to success. Total Words: 1512

Intrinsic And Extrinsic Rewards Defined Business Essay

Intrinsic And Extrinsic Rewards Defined Business Essay This chapter will review the academic literature required to study the research topic. The key areas for discussion are on intrinsic extrinsic rewards, rewards schemes strategies and theories on motivation. 2.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic rewards defined Rewards can be treated as some offerings in addition to pay. Traditional reward systems were based on positions and longevities. But now a days profit sharing, gain sharing and stock option plans are being practiced as a reward. Modern reward systems include stock grants, certificate of appreciation, even personal thank you notes (Nelson, 1994). According to Walker et al (1979), rewards are classified into extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards include basic salary and allowances which is needed to fulfill psychological and safety needs. Intrinsic rewards help individuals feelings and perceptions about the job situation which is needed to fulfill self-esteem, competence, self-actualization etc. There are several financial rewards commonly found in sales organizations are salary and commission, bonus, fringe benefits, stock options, retirement plan which fulfills both extrinsic and intrinsic needs of employees. Coli (1997), describes classification of reward and recognition under three types of rewards. They are monetary, awards and developmental rewards. Monetary rewards includes individual bonus for project completion, stock grants, skill-based pay, gain sharing, targeted total cash, special individual increase, non-discretionary incentives for the beginning of the project etc. According to Lyons Ora (2002), financial performance includes basic salary, variable pay, other compensations, perquisites and benefits. Different individuals have different perceptions of rewards. For instance, some individuals may consider cash as a sufficient and adequate reward for their efforts at work, while others may consider holidays and material incentives (such as a car) as more rewarding in exchange for their work. Others still, may consider a shift in the treatment that they get from their leaders to be a more rewarding experience. For instance, some employees consider being recognized by their leader as more rewarding than financial incentives (La Belle, 2005). 2.1.1 What are Financial Rewards? Zammit (2004), best described financial rewards. A reward strategy is an integrated approach to reward employees according to their contribution, skill and competence and their market worth. The author classified four types of financial reward. Basic salary Performance related pay Allowances Other financial rewards The basic salary is determined according to management position, standard of living, job market, qualification of the receivers. The dimensions of performance consist of bonuses, commissions and special skills. Allowances are most commonly provided for substitution, workstation transfer and transportation, free or discounted benefits, cultural or religious holidays, telecommunications. Other financial rewards are mostly practiced by offering stock options, pension schemes. 2.2 Reward strategy Reward strategies provide answers to two basic questions for an organization Where do we want our reward practices to be in a few years time? and How do we intend to get there?. Therefore, they deal with both ends and means. Ends they describe a vision of what reward processes will look like in a few years time and means on the expectation of how the vision will be realized. 2.2.1 Reward strategy defined Reward strategy is ultimately a way of thinking that you can apply to any reward issue arising in your organization, to see how you can create value from it (Brown, 2001). Reward strategy is a declaration of intent which defines what the organization wants to do in the longer term to develop and implement reward policies, practices and processes which will further the achievement of its business goals and meet the needs of its stakeholders. It provides a sense of purpose and direction and a framework for developing reward policies, practices and process. It is based on an understanding of the needs of the organization and its employees and how they can best be satisfied. It is also concerned with developing the values of the organization on how people should be rewarded and formulating guiding principles which will ensure that these values are enacted. Reward strategy is underpinned by a reward philosophy which expresses what the organization believes should be the basis upon which people are valued and rewarded. Reward philosophies are often articulated as guiding principles. 2.2.2 The content of reward strategy Reward strategy may be a broad-brush affair simply indicating the general direction in which it is thought reward management should go. Additionally or alternatively, reward strategy may set out a list of specific intentions dealing with particular aspects of reward management. Broad-brush reward strategy (Armstrong (2007), pg. 635) A broad-brush reward strategy may commit the organization to the pursuit of a total rewards policy. The basic aim might be to achieve an appropriate balance between financial and non-financial rewards. A further aim could be to use other approaches to the development of the employment relationship and the work environment which will enhance commitment and engagement and provide more opportunities for the contribution of people to be valued and recognized. Examples of other broad strategic aims include: 1. Introducing a more integrated approach to reward management encouraging continuous personal development and spelling out career opportunities; 2. Developing a more flexible approach to reward which includes the reduction of artificial barriers as a result of over-emphasis on grading and promotion; 3. Generally rewarding people according to their contribution; 4. Supporting the development of a performance culture and building levels of competence 5. Clarifying what behaviors will be rewarded and why. 2.2.3 Specific reward initiatives As Cox and Purcell (1998) write: The real benefit in reward strategies lies in complex linkages with other human resource management policies and practices. The selection of reward initiatives and the priorities attached to them will be based on an analysis of the present circumstances of the organization and an assessment of the needs of the business and its employees. The following are examples of possible specific reward initiatives, one or more of which might feature in a reward strategy: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The replacement of present methods of contingent pay with a pay for contribution scheme; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The introduction of a new grade and pay structure, e.g. a broad-graded or career family structure; 2.2.4 Developing reward strategy The formulation of reward strategy can be described as a process for developing and defining a sense of direction. The main phases are: 1. The diagnosis phase, when reward goals are agreed, current policies and practices assessed against them, options for improvement considered and any changes agreed. 2. The detailed design phase when improvements and changes are detailed and any changes tested (pilot testing is important). 3. The final testing and preparation phase. 4. The implementation phase, followed by ongoing review and modification. 2.2.5 Implementing reward strategy The aim of implementation is to make the reward strategy an operating reality by building the capacity of the organization to put into practice the proposals worked out in the development stage. As Armstrong and Brown (2007) stress: It is always essential to design with implementation in mind. Purcell (1999), believes that the focus of strategy should be on implementation. As explained by Thompson and Strickland (1990): Implementation entails converting the strategic plan into action and then into results. An effective reward strategy is a living process and, in the words of Rosabeth Moss Kanter (1984), an action vehicle, formulation is easy; implementation is hard. A pragmatic approach is required whats good is what works. Implementing reward strategy is much more about process than design how it will be done rather than what will be done. The principles of procedural and distributive justice apply. People must feel that the procedures used to determine their grades, pay level and pay progression are fair, equitable, applied consistently and transparent. They must also feel that the awards distributed to them are just in terms of their contribution and value to the organization. 2.3 Rewards management strategy defined Reward management is concerned with the formulation and implementation of strategies and policies in order to reward people fairly, equitably and consistently in accordance with their value to the organization. As Duncan Brown (2001) emphasizes, the alignment of your reward practices with employee values and needs is every bit as important as alignment with business goals, and critical to the realization of the latter. It deals with the development of reward strategies and the design, implementation and maintenance of reward systems (reward processes, practices and procedures) which aim to meet the needs of both the organization and its stakeholders. Rewards can be regarded as the fundamental expression of the employment relationship. 2.3.1 The aims of reward management Armstrong and Brown (2006), pg.33, identifies the following; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reward people according to what the organization values and wants to pay for. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reward people for the value they create. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reward the right things to convey the right message about what is important in terms of behaviors and outcomes. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Develop a performance culture. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Motivate people and obtain their commitment and engagement. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Help to attract and retain the high quality people the organization needs. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Develop a positive employment relationship and psychological contract. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Align reward practices with both business goals and employee values. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Operate fairly people feel that they are treated justly in accordance with what is due to them because of their value to the organization (the felt-fair principle of Eliot Jacques (1961)). The fundamentals of reward management Recognizing the importance of the part played by line managers in implementing reward strategy and the need to ensure that they are committed and have the necessary skills; Paying close and continuous attention to communicating with employees and involving them in the development as well as the implementation of reward strategy; Being absolutely clear about the objectives of the strategy and resolute about evaluating its effectiveness. The following Reward strategies theories can be applied when developing a reward scheme in an organization. Pay people right (Zingheim and Schuster) Zingheim and Schuster (2000) have laid down the following six principles for paying people right: 1. Create a positive and natural reward experience. 2. Align rewards with business goals to achieve a win-win partnership. 3. Extend peoples line of sight between effort and outcome, motivating smart working over simply expending extra effort. 4. Integrate reward with strategic aims and the kind of contribution desired. 5. Reward individual ongoing (input) value to the organization with base pay. 6. Reward results (outputs) with variable pay. Dynamic pay (Flannery, Hofrichter and Platten) Flannery, Hofrichter and Platten (1996) expounded the concept of dynamic pay and suggested that the nine principles that support a successful pay strategy are: 1. Align compensation with the organizations culture, values and strategic business goals. 2. Link compensation to the other changes. 3. Time the compensation programme to best support other change initiatives. 4. Integrate pay with other people processes. 5. Democratize the pay process. 6. Demystify compensation. 7. Measure results. 8. Refine. Refine again. Refine some more. 9. Be selective. Dont take to heart everything you hear or read about pay. 2.3.3 Components of an effective reward strategy An effective strategy is one in which there are clearly defined goals and a well-defined link to business objectives; well-designed pay and reward programmes, tailored to the needs of the organization and its people, and consistent and integrated with one another; and effective and supportive HR and reward processes in place. Brown (2001) has suggested that effective reward strategies have three components: 1. They have to have clearly defined goals and a well-defined link to business objectives. Recognize the value of everyone who is making an effective contribution, not just the exceptional performers. Allow a reasonable degree of flexibility in the operation of reward processes and in the choice of benefits by employees. Devolve more responsibility for reward decisions to line managers. 2. There have to be well-designed pay and reward programmes, tailored to the needs of the organization and its people, and consistent and integrated with one another. 3. Perhaps most important and most neglected, there needs to be effective and supportive HR and reward processes in place. Armstrong and Brown (2006), have further suggested the following approach to reward strategy. This has the following characteristics: Appreciating that a good strategy is one that works and therefore focusing on implementation programmes; Planning with implementation in mind recognizing during the design process that plans have to be converted into reality and taking steps to anticipate the problems involved; Aligning reward strategies with the business and HR strategies; Ensuring that reward strategy fits the culture and characteristics of the organization, meets business needs and takes account of individual needs and preferences; Being aware of good practice elsewhere but not being seduced by the notion that it is best practice, i.e. universally applicable and easily replicated; Paying more attention to using strategic reward initiatives to support the engagement and commitment of people so that they are motivated and productive, rather than focusing on the mechanics of new reward fads; Bearing in mind that the development and implementation of reward strategy is an evolutionary process it is about doing things better at a manageable pace rather than extraordinary new developments; Providing flexibility within a framework, i.e. developing a flexible approach to the reward of different people but always within a framework that provides for consistent treatment; Appreciating that implementing reward strategy will require a comprehensive change management programme. 2.4 What is Motivation? Many contemporary authors have defined the concept of motivation as; the psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction (Kreitner, 1995); a tendency to behave in a purposive method to achieve specific, unmet desires (Buford, Bedeian, Lindner, 1995); an inner force to gratify an unsatisfied need (Higgins, 1994); and the will to accomplish (Bedeian, 1993). In this study, motivation is operationally defined as the inner force that drives individuals to achieve personal and organizational goals. Understanding what motivates employees is one of the key challenges for managers. Although it is not possible directly to motivate others, it is nonetheless important to know how to influence what others are motivated to do, with the overall aim of having employees identify their own welfare with that of the organization (Bruce and Pepitone, 1999). While motivation is determined by both monetary non-monetary factors, money has come to play an overly important role in our thinking about the causes of behavior. In most companies, very limited time effort are spent on considering non-monetary sources of motivation (Gratton, 2004). For organizations to address these expectations an understanding of employee motivation is required (Beer et al., 1984). Carnegie (1975) emphasizes the human aspects of management. They postulate that as it is people who make a business succeed or fail it is the organizations chief responsibility to motivate their people so that they will assure success. The author believes that each human being has the potential for creativity, contribution and achievement of business goals. Therefore, the infinite question is how organizations reach this potential and how they stimulate creativity and foster in their people the desire to succeed and to achieve self-fulfillment through their work. The common theme of all the above authors is the belief that people need to be respected and treated as precious human capital, more essential to an organizations effectiveness than its financial capital. Organizations are under constant pressure to enhance and improve their performance and are realizing that an interdependent relationship exists between organizational performance and employee performance. In the following section the focus will be on the motivational theories and the impact that these theories have on enhancing employee performance. 2.5 Theories on motivation The process of motivation as described below is broadly based on a number of motivation theories that attempt to explain in more detail what it means. Some of the distinctive theories will be discussed below. 2.5.1. Needs (content) theory The basis of this theory is the belief that an unsatisfied need creates tension and disequilibrium. To restore the balance a goal is identified that will satisfy the need and a behavior pathway is selected that will lead to the achievement of the goal. All behavior is therefore motivated by unsatisfied needs. The best-known contributor to needs theory is Maslow, A (1954). He formulated the concept of a hierarchy of needs, which start from the fundamental physiological needs and lead through safety, social and esteem needs to the need for self-fulfillment, the highest need of all. He said that man is a wanting animal; only an unsatisfied need can motivate behavior, and the dominant need is the prime motivator of behavior. This is the best-known theory of needs, but it has never been verified by empirical research. 2.5.2. Herzbergs two-factor theory Herzbergs two-factor model theory states that the factors giving rise to job satisfaction (and motivation) are distinct from the factors that lead to job dissatisfaction. It is sometimes called the motivation-hygiene theory. There are two groups of factors. The first consists of the satisfiers or motivators, which are intrinsic to the job. These include achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility and growth. The second group comprises what Herzberg calls the dissatisfaction avoidance or hygiene factors, which are extrinsic to the job and include pay, company policy and administration, personal relations, status and security. These cannot create satisfaction but, unless preventive action is taken, they can cause dissatisfaction. He also noted that any feeling of satisfaction resulting from pay increases was likely to be short-lived compared with the long-lasting satisfaction from the work itself. One of the key conclusions derived from the research is therefore that pay is not a motivator, except in the short term, although unfair payment systems can lead to demotivation. Herzbergs two-factor model draws attention to the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators, and his contention that the satisfaction resulting from pay increases does not persist has some face validity. But his research and the conclusions he reached have been attacked first because, it is asserted, the original research is flawed and fails to support the contention that pay is not a motivator, and secondly because no attempt was made to measure the relationship between satisfaction and performance. As Guest, D (1992) has written: Many managers knowledge of motivation has not advanced beyond Herzberg and his generation. This is unfortunate. Their theories are now over thirty years old. Extensive research has shown that as general theories of motivation the theories of Herzberg and Maslow are wrong. They have been replaced by more relevant approaches. 2.5.3. Equity theory To explain how employees judge the fairness of rewards received in proportion to resources invested for completing a task by assessing ones on investment-reward ratio Equity theory (John Stacey Adams) is used, This theory is compared against the ratio of another colleague holding a similar position (McShane et al.2000 pg 79). A comparison can be made using the formula below: Outcomes (Individual) = Outcomes (Other) Inputs (Individual) Inputs (Other) Above formula can be explained, that employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they put in to a job and the outcomes they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others. The belief in equity theory is that people value fair treatment which causes them to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the relationships of their co-workers and the organization. The main concern however is payment; this therefore is the cause of equality or inequalty in most cases. In any position within the organization, an employee wants to feel that their contributions and work performance are being rewarded with their pay. According to equity theory, if an employee feels under-paid then it will result in the employee feeling hostile towards the organization and perhaps their co-workers, which may result the employee not performing well at work anymore. But Adams Equity Theory is very much more complex sophisticated motivational model, in this model more than merely assessing effort put in (inputs) and rewards (outputs). Equity Theory gives prominence to an additional perspective of comparison, were employees compare themselves with others (people who consider in a similar position). Referent others are used to describe the reference points or people with whom we compare our own situation, which is the Highlight part of the theory. The three primary assumptions applied to most business applications of Equity Theory can be summarized as follows: Equity norm- Where Employees expect a fair return for what they contribute in their jobs. Social comparison- Employees determine what their equitable return should be after comparing their inputs and outcomes with those of their coworkers. Cognitive distortion Employees who perceive themselves as being in an inequitable situation will seek to reduce the inequity either by distorting inputs and/or outcomes in their own minds, by directly altering inputs and/or outputs, or by leaving the organization. 2.5.4. Vrooms expectancy theory Vrooms expectancy theory basically separates effort (which arises from motivation), performance, and outcomes. Its assumption is that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives. Vroom realized that an employees performance is based on individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. He stated that effort, performance and motivation are linked in a persons motivation. He uses the variables Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence to account for this. Expectancy  is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance i.e. if I work harder then this will be better. This is affected by such things as: Having the right resources available (e.g. raw materials, time) Having the right skills to do the job Having the necessary support to get the job done (e.g. supervisor support, or correct information on the job) Instrumentality  is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome will be received. The degree to which a first level outcome will lead to the second level outcome. (i.e. if I do a good job, there is something in it for me.) This is affected by such things as: Clear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes e.g. the rules of the reward game Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome Transparency of the process that decides who gets what outcome Valence  is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome. For the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. For example, if someone is mainly motivated by money, he or she might not value offers of additional time off. The three elements are important behind choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy) and performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy). E>P expectancy:  our assessment of the probability that our efforts will lead to the required performance level. P>O expectancy:  our assessment of the probability that our successful performance will lead to certain outcomes. Crucially, Vrooms expectancy theory works on  Perceptions   so even if an employer thinks they have provided everything appropriate for motivation, and even if this works with most people in that organization, it doesnt mean that someone wont perceive that it doesnt work for them. Thus, Vrooms expectancy theory of motivation is not about self-interest in rewards but about the associations people make towards expected outcomes and the contribution they feel they can make towards those outcomes. 2.6 Theoretical framework 2.6.1 Relationship between Financial Rewards and Performance Financial rewards practiced by an organization play an important role in motivating employees to perform depending on the type of business its involved in and require their employees to be engaged in.. Therefore, organizations financial performance is ultimately dependent on the employees performance. It is also considered that improper reward practices may result below average financial performance of organizations. Most agree that reward practices act as motivators that shape the employees behaviors. According to prior researches, it is commonly believed that if financial rewards are effectively used, employees are motivated to perform high and that ultimately results financial performance. Financial performance is improved if there is a carefully crafted reward practice (Allen Helms; 2001). It is difficult to relate financial reward with organizational financial performance (Kerr, 1999). Reward must positively influence performance (Nelson, 1994). Regardless to team-based reward, individual reward is still important as individuals could see that their activities are making difference to the organization. According to Zingheim Schuster (2000), a few businesses design their reward system for the optimization of company performance. Basic salary and incentives matches competitive practice and emphasizes performance results. Incentive plans are often used in employment settings to encourage superior performance. While such inducements are found to have positive effects on job performance concerns have been raised over rewards influence on task interest and creativity. (Bartol Locke, 2000; Fay Thompson, 2001) In a research, it is found that employees stock ownership plans and profit sharing are widely used reward practice (Lawler et all, 1995). Hale (1998) and Lawler (1981, 1987) recognized rewards have critical importance as a means of employee motivation. Organizations and manager acknowledge reward and recognition consistently as a motivator of individual employees. Employees understandings and satisfactions with reward system lead to specific behaviors and actions, finally results operational and financial results (Cacioppe, 1999). According to Saxby (2007), it is an avoidable mistake of management for not rewarding employees for a well done job. Tangible rewards are nicer and more meaningful regarding employee motivation rather than intangible praising and acknowledgement. Contradiction to the theory, according to LaBelle (2005) in some cases managers may practice rewards for some behaviors which is unexpected or unproductive. Sometimes worker may misunderstand the objective of getting reward. Some cases of mismatches are discussed below: Safety vs. Productivity: Sometimes, employees do not understand that whether heshe is receiving reward for working safely or for the firms productivity or for the quality of services rendered. 2.6.2 Relationship between Financial Rewards, Motivation and Performance Financial incentives and rewards can motivate. People need money and therefore want money. It can motivate but it is not the only motivator. It has been suggested by Wallace, M.J and Szilagyi, L (1982) that money can serve the following reward functions: It can act as a goal that people generally strive for although to different degrees. It can act as an instrument that provides valued outcomes. It can be a symbol that indicates the recipients value to the organization. It can act as a general reinforce because it is associated with valued rewards so often that it takes on reward value itself. But doubts have been cast on the effectiveness of money as a motivator by Herzberg et al (1957). As noted, he claimed that, while the lack of it may cause dissatisfaction, money does not result in lasting satisfaction. There is something in this, especially for people on fixed salaries or rates of pay who do not benefit directly from an incentive scheme. They may feel good when they get an increase, as, apart from the extra money, it is highly effective ways of making people believe they are valued. But the feeling of euphoria can rapidly die away. However, it must be re-emphasized that different people have different needs, and Herzbergs two-factor theory has not been validated. Some will be much more motivated by money than others. What cannot be assumed is that money motivates everyone in the same way and to the same extent. But do financial incentives motivate people? The answer, according to Kohn, A (1993) is absolutely not. He challenges what he calls the behaviourist dogma about money and motivation. And he claims that no controlled scientific study has ever found a long term enhancement of the quality of work as a result of any reward system. When you look at how people are motivated, claims Kohn, It becomes disturbingly clear that the more you use rewards to motivate people, the more they tend to lose interest in whatever they had to do to get the rewards. He quotes research that has repeatedly shown that the more salient or reinforcing the reward is, the more it erodes intrinsic interest and points out that various devices can be used to get people to do something, but that is a far cry from making people want to do something. Pfeffer, J (1998) also contends that: People do work

tennis paper -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are several different aspects of playing and improving your tennis game. Different strokes, rules, boundaries and many other aspects make up the game of tennis. Over the next few pages, I will do my best to explain the forehand and backhand stroke, the serve and volley, the rules of tennis, and without a doubt the grandslam.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The forehand stroke is the most popular in tennis. Stand facing the net, knees slightly bent, weight evenly distributed and forward on the balls of your feet. The racket is held in front of your body, elbows in close and parallel to the ground. The racket is supported with your free hand. From the turn position, the racket goes back until it is parallel to the ground- the angle between forearm and racket still remaining the same. The butt of the racket is pointing toward the net and the racket is on edge. The ball is contacted opposite the left leg, approximately waist high; the arm is relatively straight and the wrist firm. The follow through is a long, continuous sweeping motion finishing high with the racket butt opposite the left eye, (for right handers). The backhand is for the most part very similar just reversed. Tilt the face of your racquet down more on your backswing. Your racquet face naturally opens up (tilts upward) as you swing forward. You need to start your swing with it facing somewhat downward in order for it to end up at vertical as it meets the ball. Hold your racquet face vertical at the point where you normally meet the ball, then, without turning your wrist(s), pull the racquet back to your normal backswing position. It should face somewhat downward, and that's the angle you want at the start of each swing. The serve is, to me, the best way to take advantage of your opponent. For players of average height, hard, flat serves have to just barely clear the net, or they will go long. Only very tall players can get hard, flat serves in consistently enough to make them pay off. Adding some topspin will increase your margin of clearance over the net to several times larger. The most preferred power serve among advanced players has a mix of topspin and slice. On the serve, the feet are flat, the ball is tossed slightly over the head and out in front of the body. The forehand motion is used only straight over the top of your head. The volley becomes most ... ...1988) are the only three women's tennis players to win all four Grand Slam tournaments in one year. Pete Sampras is tennis's all-time biggest money winner with over $40 million in career earnings. Helen Wills Moody, whose serious demeanor on the court earned her the nickname â€Å"Little Miss Poker Face†, finished the year as the no. 1 ranked women's tennis player nine times, including seven years straight from 1927 to 1933. In 1997, 16-year-old Martina Hingis became the youngest women's tennis player to be ranked no. 1 in the world since the rankings began in 1975. One of the most difficult accomplishments in professional tennis is winning all four of these tournaments. These tournaments are therefore known as the Grand Slam tournaments, and rank as the most important tennis tournaments of the year in the public mind as well as in terms of the ranking points and prizemoney awarded for performances in them. Though it may seem like tennis is entirely too complicated, it can be one of the most fun sports to play. Even if you’re not that good at the game, you still get great exercise, keeping you in shape. If you’ve never played tennis, start. And if you’ve played before, don’t ever stop.

The Hottest Workout: Bikram Yoga :: Exercise Health Fitness Papers

The Hottest Workout: Bikram Yoga Imagine a 240-pound professional football player stretching his sweat-drenched body to its limits in heat of more than 110 degrees. This scene doesn’t take place on a football field, but in a heated Bikram yoga studio where many athletes and everyday people are going to cure and prevent aches and pains. Yoga, as a way to achieve higher self-awareness, was around as early as 200 B.C. in India and has been gradually growing in popularity in the western world over the past four decades. Traditional styles of yoga, including Hatha yoga, which consists of thousands of poses, have long been studied as an effective form of complimentary or alternative medicine (CAM). The biggest yoga boom has occurred over the past decade according to statistics from the International Association of Yoga Therapists. The Association estimates there were 20 million Americans practicing some form of yoga in 2002 compared to 6 million in 1994. Increased awareness of yoga as a healing method along with high-profile celebrity endorsements have contributed to the growing numbers of yoga users recently. Madonna and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar are some famous yogis that have been students of Bikram Choudhury, who founded his own style of hot yoga in India. Dina Lancour, a Hatha yoga instructor from Agawam, Massachusetts, took a Bikram yoga class under Choudhury. â€Å"It reminded me of Indian sweat tents,† Lancour said. â€Å"It becomes very meditative and deep.† Proponents of Bikram yoga and medical specialists have noted the health benefits of hot yoga. Other yoga practitioners and teachers have expressed concerns about the safety of practicing yoga in a hot room and some ‘yoga purists’ question the motives of the founder, noting that his style is too outwardly focused. According to an article in the Charleston Gazette (March 24,2004) some yoga traditionalists believe the attention yoga has received in mainstream media and business is damaging to the ancient practice. Newer students of yoga are more concerned about how they look rather than the spiritual basis for yoga the article stated. Yoga purists believe focus on the outward image overlooks the true goals of yoga, which are more spiritually focused. Bikram yoga incorporates 26 of the Hatha poses and two breathing exercises in a â€Å"specific order to get the maximum benefit for the body,† said Megan Cooney, a certified Bikram instructor, who teaches at three studios in the Boston area. Choudhury developed the Bikram style after he suffered an knee injury from weight training. The Hottest Workout: Bikram Yoga :: Exercise Health Fitness Papers The Hottest Workout: Bikram Yoga Imagine a 240-pound professional football player stretching his sweat-drenched body to its limits in heat of more than 110 degrees. This scene doesn’t take place on a football field, but in a heated Bikram yoga studio where many athletes and everyday people are going to cure and prevent aches and pains. Yoga, as a way to achieve higher self-awareness, was around as early as 200 B.C. in India and has been gradually growing in popularity in the western world over the past four decades. Traditional styles of yoga, including Hatha yoga, which consists of thousands of poses, have long been studied as an effective form of complimentary or alternative medicine (CAM). The biggest yoga boom has occurred over the past decade according to statistics from the International Association of Yoga Therapists. The Association estimates there were 20 million Americans practicing some form of yoga in 2002 compared to 6 million in 1994. Increased awareness of yoga as a healing method along with high-profile celebrity endorsements have contributed to the growing numbers of yoga users recently. Madonna and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar are some famous yogis that have been students of Bikram Choudhury, who founded his own style of hot yoga in India. Dina Lancour, a Hatha yoga instructor from Agawam, Massachusetts, took a Bikram yoga class under Choudhury. â€Å"It reminded me of Indian sweat tents,† Lancour said. â€Å"It becomes very meditative and deep.† Proponents of Bikram yoga and medical specialists have noted the health benefits of hot yoga. Other yoga practitioners and teachers have expressed concerns about the safety of practicing yoga in a hot room and some ‘yoga purists’ question the motives of the founder, noting that his style is too outwardly focused. According to an article in the Charleston Gazette (March 24,2004) some yoga traditionalists believe the attention yoga has received in mainstream media and business is damaging to the ancient practice. Newer students of yoga are more concerned about how they look rather than the spiritual basis for yoga the article stated. Yoga purists believe focus on the outward image overlooks the true goals of yoga, which are more spiritually focused. Bikram yoga incorporates 26 of the Hatha poses and two breathing exercises in a â€Å"specific order to get the maximum benefit for the body,† said Megan Cooney, a certified Bikram instructor, who teaches at three studios in the Boston area. Choudhury developed the Bikram style after he suffered an knee injury from weight training.

Pros and Cons of the Scholastic Aptitude Test

Why I chose this topic: Should the SAT be used for college admissions? The SAT has been a huge controversy for a long time, however, it wasn’t until several months after getting into college that I began to really question why it’s used for admission. The only answers I really got from the college board was that it is â€Å"designed to assess your academic readiness for college and provides a path to opportunities, financial support and scholarships, in a way that's fair to all students. It also keeps pace with what colleges are looking for today, measuring the skills required for success in the 21st century. I still was not convinced because not all those answers seemed right to me. What is the SAT: So what is the SAT? The Scholastic Aptitude Test is a standardized test used by college admissions. It is a timed test featuring a Critical Reading, mathematics, and writing section. Pros vs Cons of the SAT: Proponents of the SAT claim that it is a great indicator to colle ges as to how students will do in college since it assesses the critical thinking skills needed. Opponents of the SAT claim that it is a poor indicator of the intelligence of the student. Why it should not be used: Why should the SAT not be used?Before even getting to the components of the test, first lets take into account the fact that a lot of people out there do not have enough money for tutors or books who really need them for preparation. A lot of other people hire tutors or get a lot of books to prepare them well and therefore the preparation itself just went through an unfair process. Secondly, the test is timed and we all work at different paces. There are those of us who can read really fast and get all the information down fast but there are those of us who cant read as fast but can still get down all the information very well.There are those of us who can quickly think about how to format an essay but there are those of us who need more time are can still write a great e ssay. Therefore, the fact that it is timed definitely factors in to not being able to truly indicate how smart the student really is. The SAT is also very culturally biased in the way that there are many people out there who come to the United States late in their school career and barely know any English and are all of a sudden expected to have a great English vocabulary and great English reading skills just to have a chance to go to college.Once again, another reason the SAT does not truly determine the intelligence of the student. Conclusion: The SAT shows how the student did on ONE test as opposed to grades, which show the student did overtime. There are many people out there who are not very good test takers and there were probably many who just did not feel themselves the day of their SAT and ended up doing worse than they were capable of. The SAT is a very biased test in a lot of aspects and should absolutely be abolished because it poorly indicates how smart the student real ly is and, in several cases, how the student can perform in college.